Population (Jeremy Werner)
Demographics[P3] (Jeremy Werner)
Cleveland is the fourth poorest city in the U.S., behind the nearby cities of Detroit, Buffalo, and Cincinnati, with a per capita of $15,635 [P4][P5]. Twenty-seven percent of the city's population lives below the poverty level, a rate 13.5 percent higher than the national average.
Male |
48.1% |
Female |
51.9% |
African-American |
53.2% |
White |
38.3% |
Hispanic or Latino |
8.1% |
Asian |
1.7% |
Population 25 and older with high school diploma |
73.8% |
Population 25 and older with bachelor's degree |
12.0% |
The city of Cleveland, by day and by night | ||
www.destination360.com | http://www.youshouldown.com/img/ohionight.jpg |
Transportation Systems
ward | project name | limits | scope | estimated costs | Status | Estimated construction start date | Estimated construction end date |
city wide | 2007 Concrete Requirement Contract | Citywide |
Requirement Contract to replace curb ramps on newly resurfaced streets; other concrete work as required. |
$1,700,000 | Design | Apr-07 | Jun-08 |
12 |
Aetna Rd. Bridge Replacement |
E. 80th to E. 91st |
Bridge replacement |
$2,000,000 |
Design | Mar-10 | Aug-11 |
13 |
Avenue District, Ph 2 |
E. 12th St., Lakeside to Chester |
Reconfigure Street, add streetscape amenities |
$5,000,000 | Design | Aug-07 | Aug-08 |
19 |
Bellaire Rd. Rehab Ph 1 |
W. 105th to W. 117th |
New Curb, Sidewalks and asphalt Street |
$4,200,000 | Design | Feb-08 | Oct-09 |
19 |
Bellaire Rd. Rehab Ph 2 |
W. 117th to W. 130th |
Road resurfacing, traffic signal upgrades, curb ramp upgrades and miscellaneous curb andsidewalk repairs. |
$3.115.000 | Planning | Oct-08 | Jun-10 |
5,2 |
Bessemer Ave. Ph 2 - Final Engineering and ROW Acquisition |
Bessemer Ave. to Aetna along E. 88th Street |
New Roadway to get industrial traffic from E. 93rd to I-490 efficiently. |
$1,150,000 | Design | Mar-09 | Dec-10 |
http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us/pdf/PS/2007%20Project%20Update%20for%20Website.pdf
Geographic Location
Area: 82.42 square miles
[G3]
[G4]
Economy
Early after its founding
[E6]
Land Use
The City of Cleveland is a well developed metropolitan area with many buildings and skyscrapers, including The Key Tower [L1], Terminal Tower [L2], and the BP Building [L3]. Cleveland also houses many professional sports teams including, Indians, Browns, and Cavaliers. [L4] Cleveland is located on Lake Erie, and the Cuyahoga River goes directly through the center of the city. Cleveland has four major parks including, Lakefront State Park and Cuyahoga Valley National Park. [L4] At one time Cleveland was a heavily forested area[L5, but with time the city transformed into an industrial and manufacturing city. Throughout the years, with the decline of manufacturing it has become more urbanized, which has led to several environmental problems such as the reduction of farmland, wetlands, wildlife and plant habitat. [L5] These environmental problems have caused other problems including, greenhouse effects, flooding problems, and poor air and water quality. [L5 With the expansion of urbanization, most of the key agricultural land is continuously being threatened. [L5]
Cuyahoga Valley National Park [L6] Jacobs Field, Downtown Cleveland [L7]
Climate
Cleveland has a typical climate of the midwestern United States. Summers are hot and humid, while winters are cold and snowy. Cleveland is on the shoreline of Lake Erie and is greatly affected by lake effect snow. Below are the average temperatures is Cleveland, as well as the temperatures Cleveland experienced in the past year
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Average Temperature (°F) |
Observed High and Low Temperatures and Precipitation for 2007 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
http://www.rssweather.com/climate/Ohio/Cleveland/ | http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cle/climate/graphs/CLE_graph.html |
Average Percipitation
Month |
Jan. |
Feb. |
Mar. |
Apr. |
May |
Jun. |
Jul. |
Aug. |
Sep. |
Oct. |
Nov. |
Dec. |
Inches |
2.6 |
2.3 |
3.0 |
3.4 |
3.5 |
3.5 |
3.6 |
3.4 |
3.2 |
2.6 |
3.2 |
2.9 |
The average precipitation each year is 37.2 inches.
Degree Days
Cleveland has an average of 3242 growing degree days. [C2]
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
http://mrcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/grow/oh/331657_gsum.html |
Records
Record High Temperatures
Month
|
Record High
|
Record Low
|
January
|
73°F (1950)
|
-20°F (1994)
|
February
|
74°F (2000)
|
-16°F (1899)
|
March
|
83°F (1945)
|
-5°F (1984)
|
April
|
88°F (1986)
|
10°F (1964)
|
May
|
92°F (1959)
|
25°F (1966)
|
June
|
104°F (1988)
|
31°F (1972)
|
July
|
103°F (1941)
|
41°F (1968)
|
August
|
102°F (1948)
|
38°F (1982)
|
September
|
101°F (1953)
|
32°F (1942)
|
October
|
90°F (1946)
|
19°F (1988)
|
November
|
82°F (1950)
|
3°F (1976)
|
December
|
77°F (1982)
|
-15°F (1989)
|
The highest recorded temperature was 104°F in 1988, while the lowest recorded temperature was -20°F in 1994. [C3]
The record precipitation is 4.59 inches in September 1996 and the record snowfall is 13.6 inches in February 1993. [C4]
Ecology
The
Quillback Carpsucker http://www.tnfish.org/ |
Virginia Bluebells http://icons-pe.wunderground.com/data/wximagenew/a/AlteredStars/31.jpg |
Topography
The city of Cleveland is comprised of 77.6 square miles of land and 4.8 square miles of water, for a combined total of 82.4 square miles. It is located at latitude , near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie. [TO3] The city is built on a delta plain which was created during the time period of glaciers in southern Canada and what is now the Great Lakes region approximately 20,000 years ago. [TO4][TO5] Along Lake Erie is a series of bluffs. A bluff is a very steep and high cliff or hill that is usually located along the banks of a body of water, as it is in Cleveland. [TO6] The bluffs are cut in certain places by the Big Creek, Euclid Creek, and the Cuyahoga River. Because of these bluffs, the elevation of the land quickly increases, with the shore of Lake Erie sitting at 569 feet above sea level and at 5 miles inward sitting at 791 feet. [TO7]
The map below depicts the elevations of the landforms surrounding the Cuyahoga River which flows through Cuyahoga County.[TO1]] Cleveland lies on the irregular bluffs, which are parallel to the lake, and cut by the Cuyahoga River, Big Creek, and Euclid Creek. From here, the land rises. Hopkins Airport, discussed above, is only 5 miles from the shore, yet it is elevated 791 feet.[TO2] The second map, found on the United States Census website, further breaks down the composition of the city.
http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/MapItDrawServlet?geo_id=16000US3916000&_bucket_id=46&tree_id=336&context=saff&_lang=en&_sse=on | |
Sources
[P1] http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t5/tab02.txt
[P3] http://factfinder.census.gov/
[P4] http://cleveland.about.com/b/2007/08/28/cleveland-returns-to-the-top-of-the-poverty-list.htm
[T1] http://www.clevelandairport.com/site/395/default.aspx
[T2] http://www.clevelandairport.com/site/470/default.aspx
[T3] http://www.gcrta.org/ro.asp
[G1] http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Midwest/Cleveland-Geography-and-Climate.html
[G2] http://www.usacitiesonline.com/ohcountycleveland.htm#location
[G3] http://ohio.wedding.net/images/180px-Geographic_regions_ohio.svg.png
[G4] http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/world_cities/cleveland.jpg
[E1] http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=I4
[E2] http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Midwest/Cleveland-Economy.html
[E3] http://planning.city.cleveland.oh.us/cwp/sus_trend.php
[E4] http://www.acinet.org/acinet/oview6.asp?soccode=&stfips=39&from=State&id=&nodeid 12
[E5] http://www.onecommunity.org/
[E6] http://www.census.gov/econ/census02/data/ar/AR025.HTM
[L1] http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=keytower-cleveland-oh-usa
[L2] http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=terminaltower-cleveland-oh-usa
[L3] http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=2921
[L4] http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us/information/
[L5] http://planning.city.cleveland.oh.us/cwp/sus_trend.php
[C1] http://mrcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/temp/oh/331657_tsum.html
[C2] http://mrcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/grow/oh/331657_gsum.html
[C3] http://www.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/USOH0195
[C4] http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cle/climate/cle/records/cletop10temp.html
[C5] http://www.city-data.com/city/Cleveland-Ohio.html
[C6] http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=042527&refer=
[C7] http://www.city-data.com/states/Ohio-Climate.html
[Ec1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/getwriting/A2894718
[TO1] http://www.cuyahogavalley.net/topo_map.html
[TO2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio#_note-24
[TO3] http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html
[TO4] http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pr/ourlakes/background.html
[TO5] https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/4012/1/V53N02_053.pdf
[TO6] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary
[TO7] http://www.airnav.com/airport/KCLE
Weather of Cleveland, Ohio
http://collegeandproball.blogspot.com/2007_04_08_archive.html
Lake Effect Snow (Jeremy Werner)
Because of the frequency of lake-effect snow, the city of
Case Study- Lake Effect Snow (Jeremy Werner)
Sometimes, the city can receive severe levels of snowfall in just a couple of days from lake-effect snow. On November 9, 1996, cold winds from
The heavy snow knocked out the electricity of almost 200,000 homes. [LE6] Most of
The hardest hit areas, however, were just east of the city.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/arch/cases/961109/data/snw/snw.rxml
http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/albums/1978_blizzard/1978_blizzard_albumPage02.html |
One of the worst storms to ever hit
Over 5000 members of the Ohio National Guard were called into action. These people worked to clear the roads, assist utility crews, rescue stranded pedestrians, and transport doctors and nurses to hospitals. Forty five National Guard helicopters flew through the state to rescue thousands of stranded individuals, some of them in need of immediate medical attention. In addition to the National Guard, thousands of volunteers helped to transport both doctors/nurses and medicines to hospitals. Despite these efforts, 51 people still died from this storm, which makes this one of the deadliest storms in
www.ohiohistory.org/.../ |
This storm was not merely a blizzard; rather it was a severe blizzard. A severe blizzard is characterized as winds at least 45 mph, a great density of either falling or blowing snow, and temperatures of 10 degrees or less. In this storm, there were winds of over 100 mph in some areas of the state, and sustained winds of 45-60 mph. There were record snowfalls in many areas as well. [GB2] The central pressure was recorded at 28.28 inches as the storm went through
This storm was actually the result of two unrelated low pressure systems areas, the first one being in the western
and the second one in northern
http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/image.php?rec=1649&img=1005&PHPSESSID=cabaa8f3b5b185e587eb738333c48a7e
Heat Waves (Maureen Hellstrom, mhellst2)
A heat wave can be defined as temperatures that are unusually high for a particular region during a warm season. There are four factors that increase the severity of a heat wave. Although all four factors are not necessarily present at the same time, each additional factor will increase the severity of a heat wave. The first factor is the absence of polar airmasses that may move into the region from the north or the west. The second factor is strong heating of the surface, which typically occurs on a cloud free day. The third factor is a dry ground, which allows for a feedback between the drought and extreme heat, and the final factor is the amount of vertical mixing in the air. Heat waves tend to be worse in cities or downtown regions, such as
Month
Low
High
Jan
18.8°F
32.6°F
Feb
21.0°F
35.8°F
Mar
28.9°F
46.1°F
Apr
37.9°F
57.3°F
May
48.3°F
68.6°F
Jun
57.7°F
77.4°F
Jul
62.3°F
81.4°F
Aug
61.2°F
79.2°F
Sept
54.3°F
72.3°F
Oct
43.7°F
60.8°F
Nov
34.9°F
48.7°F
Dec
24.9°F
37.4°F
http://www.rssweather.com/climate/Ohio/Cleveland/
Global warming can have a significant impact on the number of heat waves that will occur in the region. One projection, made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, estimated that by 2100 temperatures in
One notable heat wave occurred in
http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/albums/1934_heat/1934_heat_albumPage01.html |
Floods (Anamae Freehauf afreeha2)
Floods are defined as “relatively high water that overflows the natural or artificial banks of a stream or coastal area that submerges land not normally below water level.” Damaging floods can occur anywhere across the
www.cleveland.com |
Of the different types of flooding, flash flooding is the most pertinent risk. The key elements contributing to flash floods are rainfall intensity and duration. Other key elements include topography, soil conditions, and ground cover. If the ground is already saturated from previous rainfall flash floods are more likely to occur. Most flashfloods are caused by intense thunderstorms, training thunderstorms, or rains from hurricanes and tropical storms. Obviously,
http://www.swenvo.org.uk/environment/images/flash_flooding_image.gif |
Other causes of floods include dam and levee breakage. A levee is any artificial barrier that acts to divert or restrain the flow of a stream or body of water to protect an area from flooding. A dam is also an artificial barrier that acts to impound water. Although there has not been any recent failure in dams or levee in the
According to the National Climatic Data Center 73 flood events were reported in
http://ecivwww.cwru.edu/civil/graphics/research/shaker1.gif |
Important to the frequency of floods, is the area’s watershed. A watershed is the area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off of it goes into the same place. The
The Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water has implemented The Floodplain Management Program to provide information on how to reduce the impact of flooding. They work with local governments to ensure safety measures, such as encouraging participation in the National Flood Insurance Program, are taken. The Floodplain Management Program aims to provide leadership toward cooperative management of
Case Study: Flash Floods (Anamae Freehauf afreeha2)
June 22, 2006 http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/dailywxmap/index_20080101.html |
June 23, 2006 http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/dailywxmap/index_20080101.html |
In the summer of 2006 heavy rains caused the worst flooding in nearly 50 years to many areas in
Starting on June 22nd, heavy rains from severe thunderstorms in the area caused extensive flooding in both Lake and
The meteorology associated with the flood was two consecutive days of severe thunderstorms. Events leading up to the flooding included above normal precipitation during May and early June. On June 21 a warm front lifted normal across northern
Destruction from the flood was unprecedented. Estimated property damage from the flooding is around 35 million dollars. Many of the streets were turned into rivers by the influx of water requiring many motorists to be rescued from their vehicles. Property damage for the county included over 4000 homes, almost 500 businesses, and 21 public buildings [F6]
http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5161/ |
Thunderstorms
by Emilie Alcock (ealcock2)
A looming thunderstorm in Cleveland, June 19, 2007.
http://icleveland.blogspot.com/2007_06_01_archive.html
Cumulonimbus clouds are the type of clouds that produce thunderstorms. In order for thunderstorms to form the atmosphere needs to be unstable, there has to be a source of surface moisture, a lifting mechanism, and vertical wind shear. In order for thunderstorms to be classified as severe, there must be hail at a minimum of ¾ inches, a minimum wind speed of 50 knots (58 miles per hour), and tornado formation. These storms are always accompanied by lightning and thunder, strong winds, and rain [TH 1].
In Cleveland, although the average of rainy days is 156 out of a year, thunderstorms are typically a threat about 33 days out of the year. The average precipitation is 37.2 inches [TH 2]. About 5 or 6 storms occur each month from May to August with the threat of this type of severe weather much less before and after this period.
To deal with the threat of severe spring and summer weather, such as thunderstorms, the state of Ohio has developed Severe Weather Awareness Week, which usually occurs during the last full week of March [TH 3]. The state also holds Lightning Safety Week, which occurs during the last full week of June, since lightning is the most deadly occurrence associated with thunderstorms [TH 4].
Cold Waves (Matt Beard, msbeard2)
“A cold wave is an influx of unusually cold air into middle or lower latitudes." "The actual temperature itself is not the most meaningful measure of a cold wave’s intensity and impact. Rather, it is the departure from the normal temperature that is the meteorologists measure of a cold wave.” (CW1, 224)
The winters of 1976-1977 and 1977-1978 were the coldest winters in Cleveland history. "The winter of 1976-1977 was the coldest of the two, and January 1977 was the coldest month known in Ohio." CW2 The statewide average during this month in 1977 was 11.9 degrees, which was 17 degrees below normal. CW2 January 17th was the coldest day with temperatures reaching negative 25 degrees. “The impacts of the cold were intensified by snowfall that was twice the average and a blizzard at the end of January.” This particular cold wave ended in February with 60 degree weather. CW2
Cleveland, Ohio, December 1937 CW5 Taken in Cleveland Ohio CW6
The winters of the late 1970s were extremely cold and became the norm for the residents. When normal winter temperatures returned in the 1980s "'the perception among some was “winters aren’t what they used to be,” the phrase repeated by every generation that remembers the “real” winters of years past.'" CW2
Prior to the 1970s the coldest recorded temperature in Cleveland was negative 16 degrees on February 10th 1899. CW3 Typically, Cleveland has bitter cold winters, which the residents have become accustomed to, but with the exception of these three events in 1899 and in the late 1970s the cold temperatures are usually in the norms.
“Annual extreme cold temperature normally occur in late December. Maximum temperatures below freezing occur most often in December, January, and February.” On average, “freezing temperatures in the fall are first recorded in October while the last freezing temperature in spring normally occurs in April.” CW4
Blizzards
A blizzard is one of the most destructive severe weather events that take place in our world today. Blizzards are quite prominent in the Midwestern region of the U.S., but have also been known to affect the East coast and Rocky Mountain region as well. Cleveland is one of the places where a blizzard has a good opportunity of occurring. To begin with, a blizzard is a severe winter storm that forms when a warm air mass collides with a cold air mass, and the cold air mass forces the warm air mass to rise. This then causes the moist air in the warm air mass to get cooler, which causes the formation of clouds and eventually precipitation. If the air is cold enough near the surface, then the precipitation will stay in the form of snow, which then can lead to a blizzard if it has the right criteria. A winter snowstorm is classified as a blizzard if it has a sustained wind speed of thirty five mph or more, a significant amount of snow that has been falling for at least three hours, and if snow reduces the visibility to about less than a quarter mile. Luckily for the city of Cleveland they don’t have to worry much about blizzards because it doesn’t have to deal with them as much as other states in the U.S. that have the environment to support a blizzard. Generally the time frame for a blizzard to occur in Cleveland is between December and February, although it is still possible for a blizzard to occur in November and March as well. What’s unique about blizzards in Cleveland is that they can be made even worse by the influence of the Great Lakes. The Lakes can enhance the severity of the snowstorm, this is called lake effect snow, but this was explained in an earlier section. One of the lasting impacts of a blizzard is that they can cause the roads to deteriorate because of the intense cold from the snow that is left behind. [B1] [B2]
http://www.wsd1.org/PC_Science/Weather/blizzardretouched.jpg http://www.csc.cs.colorado.edu/~matthew/content/2001-12-blizzard/blizzard-02-1.jpg
Tornados (Maureen Hellstrom, mhellst2)
Tornados form when a severe thunderstorm, called a supercell, develops. The tornado normally forms when a supercell’s forward and rear flank downdraft meet under the mesocyclone. When this occurs, vortex stretching occurs. This is when the entire air column stretches when the rear flank downdraft air surrounds the rising updraft. When the low level updraft is cut off from a warm air source, it rises slower then the updraft aloft. The entire process is called tornadogenesis. Supercells require an unstable environment, which is humid and warm at the surface and dry and cold above, a moist lower troposphere, a strong vertical wind shear, and a triggering mechanism. Seeing as these conditions are not present everywhere, there are places where tornados do not develop. [Tor1] Conversely, there is also areas where tornados are very common. In the
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Atmosphere/tornado/tornado_alley.html |
Data from the years 1950 to 1995 reveals that Ohio is ranked 21 in terms of tornado frequency, 11 for the number of deaths due to tornados, 4 for injuries, and 7th in terms of damage costs. [Tor3] One notable tornado outbreak occurred in
http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1985_tornadoes.htm
[LE1] http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/ccd/snowfall.html
[LE2] http://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/US/snowiest-cities.php
[LE3] http://www.great-lakes.net/teach/geog/intro/intro_6.html
[LE4] http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us/government/departments/pubservice/pubserstreets/snow.asp
[LE5] http://www.cleveland.com/news/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/news/120146131591280.xml&coll=2
[LE6] http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/arch/cases/961109/prsnl/clps.rxml
[GB1] http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1978_blizzard.htm
[CW1] Charlevoix, Donna J., Robert M. Ruaber, and John E. Walsh. Severe and Hazardous Weather: An Introduction to High Impact Meteorology 2nd Ed. University of Illinois, 2002.
[CW2] http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1977_coldWave.htm
[CW3] http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases99/feb99/noaa99r210.html
[CW4] http://www.weatherexplained.com/Vol-5/2001-Cleveland-Ohio-CLE.html
[B1] http://library.thinkquest.org/C0126189/blizzard_formation.htm
[B2] http://www.easternsnow.org/proceedings/2000/schwartz.pdf
[GB3] http://www.crh.noaa.gov/dtx/stories/blizzard1978.php
[HW1] http://yosemite.epa.gov/OAR/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BVJVM/$File/oh_impct.pdf
[HW2] http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1934_heatWave.htm
[HW3] Charlevoix, Donna J., Robert M. Ruaber, and John E. Walsh. Severe and Hazardous Weather: An Introduction to High Impact Meteorology 2nd Ed. University of Illinois, 2002.
[F1] http://www.usgs.gov/science/science.php?term=398[F2] http://www.floodsmart.gov/
[F3] http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/ffbro.htm
[F4] http://ecivwww.cwru.edu/civil/research/shaker.html
[F5] http://www.newsnet5.com/news/9415509/detail.html
[F6] http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~ShowEvent~629799
[F7] http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwevent~storms
[F8] http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3026/2006-3026.pdf
[F9] http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/water/
[F10] http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5161/
[TH 1] http://www.weathersafety.ohio.gov/SprSumWeatherTerms2007.aspx
[TH 3] http://www.weathersafety.ohio.gov/downloads/Tornado%20Safety%20NR-2.pdf
[TH 4] http://www.weathersafety.ohio.gov/ThunderstormLightningFacts2007.aspx
[TH 2] http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weatherall.php3?s=42527&refer=&units=us
[Tor1] Charlevoix, Donna J., Robert M. Ruaber, and John E. Walsh. Severe and Hazardous Weather: An Introduction to High Impact Meteorology 2nd Ed. University of Illinois, 2002.
[Tor2] http://www.windows.ucar.edu/cgi-bin/tour_def/earth/Atmosphere/tornado/alley.html
[Tor3] http://www.disastercenter.com/ohio/tornado.html
[Tor4] http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1985_tornadoes.htm