http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Boston_Twilight_Panorama_3.jpg
Overview/Geographic Location
The great city of Boston is the capitol of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and also its largest city. The city is located in the eastern part of the state on Boston Harbor, an inlet of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of the Charles River. The city of Boston, which is located in the New England area, is the areas major city and considered the cultural/economic center for the whole New England area. The city of Boston is located at 42° 21′ 28″ N latitude and 71° 3′ 42″ W longitude. [25]
The city of Boston is very tightly compacted throughout. The city has a total area of 89.6 square miles. (48.4 square miles being land and 41.2 square miles being water) The elevation has been recorded at the Logan International Airport with it being 19 feet above sea level. The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill which is 330 feet above sea level, with the lowest point obviously being at sea level. [24]
www.bostoncitylinks.com/bostonma.html
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557136/Boston.html
Transportation spatel29
The city of Boston caters a plethora of various transportation options. As the greatest transportation service provider in the state, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority provides train, boat, subway, and bus services throughout the city. [1] With the Logan International airport, the city is able to welcome visitors from throughout the world. [2] In addition, the Boston Department of Transportation is developing a transportation plan called Access Boston 2000 - 2010 that will be used citywide, accommodating the transportation needs of all Boston occupants. They are even implementing a bicycle program that will make the city more accessible for bicyclists and more environmentally friendlier. [3] |
[1] |
[1] | [1] |
Land Use
The actual city of |
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Fenway Park: Home of the Boston Red Sox [21]
Logan Airport is an excellent example of the city containing both land and water area [21] |
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Sports
Football: Professional football arrived in New England on November 16, 1959. The New England Patriots recently dominated the NFL world before being defeated by the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII, 17-14. Some of their high-impact players include: Tom Brady (QB), Randy Moss (WR), Rodney Harrison (SS), and Tedy Bruschi (ILB). Even after losing the Super Bowl this past season after a perfect regular season, between 2001 and 2005, the Patriots became one of the few times in NFL history to win three Super Bowls in four years. They are still considered, arguably, the best team today. [4]
Basketball: On June 6, 1946, the Boston Celtics were born. They are currently the record holder for the most amount of championship wins of any NBA team. Out of their organization have come basketball legends such as Larry Bird. Until recently, they were considered a decent team. However, recent trades have allowed them to form a high-class group with Kevin Garnett, Ray Allen, and Paul Pierce to lead the way. So far in the 2007-08 season, they hold the best record in the NBA at 50-12. They have clinched a spot in the playoffs and are considered one of the most electric teams in the league.[5]
Baseball: In 1901, the game of baseball was brought to the Boston Area in the form of the Red Sox. Currently sitting, on top of the MLB world, the Red Sox are the winners of the 2007 World Series and are currently in spring training, hoping to repeat their achievement. Led, by iconic players such as David "Big Pappi" Ortiz, Josh Beckett, Curt Schilling, Manny Ramirez, this team is one of the most all-around dominant teams in the game. With the upcoming season drawing near, they are awaiting the challenge of playing the role of the defending world champions, and of course, the always exciting games versus their historic rivals, the New York Yankees. [6]
At this point in Boston, sports fans should really have nothing to complain about.
Ecology
The complex environment of
[8] [9]
Not only does
Topography
Boston sits at the very eastern part of Massachusetts on the mouth of the Charles River. This area is known as Boston Harbor and it is the largest, one of the busiest and most influencial cities in all of New England. [18] The Charles River separates two neighborhoods from the rest of Boston, leaving Charleston on one side of the river and East Boston across Boston's Inner Harbor. [18] This river, although very large and influencial like other U.S. river systems, floods much less than other major rivers, largely due to the building up of land in the Boston area over the decades. [22] The Charles River follows a 47 mile path and joins the Mystic River from the North to form the inner Boston Harbor. [19] Other bodies of water or water systems contributing to Boston's largely water covered area are the Atlantic Ocean, the Massachusetts Bay and the Cape Cod Canal. [19] As you can see by this view of Boston, a good portion of the city is indeed covered with water.
[26]
While settled on somewhat hilly land, Boston has been built up in order to level out the otherwise uneven land. Landfilling has become a huge part of Boston's topographical changes over the years, filling in the areas between hills and along shorelines in order to provide more land area to build up the great city. [22] This wave of landfilling also acted as a way to absorb some of the flooding from the Charles River as well as the Atlantic ocean, acting as a natural sponge some may say. [22] Thanks to much of this landfilling, Boston has become a very large and bustling city, something that couldn't have been done if landfilling hadn't been taking place for decades upon decades.
[27]
Some other important topographical facts about Boston are:
- Elevation: 43 ft. above sea level (not high, clearly due to the fact that the city is located ON the Atlantic Ocean) [20]
- Land Area: 48.4 sq. miles [21]
- Some of the major buildings in the metropolitan area are the tallest landmarks in the city and influence Boston's climate and weather events. [18]
- The skyline of these such buildings can be seen in the second figure above.
Climate
Max Temp Avg: 82.2 F July Avg Annual Precipitation: 41.5 inches
Min Temp Avg: 22.1 F January (Avg Annual Snow: 42.4 inches)[13] (Annual Max Avg: 59.0 F)
(Avg Relative Humidity: 65.5)
(Annual Min Avg: 43.6 F)
(Annual Avg: 51.3 F)
(Highest Recorded Temperature: 104 F, July 4 1911)
(Lowest Recorded Temperature: -18 F, February 9 1934)
[14]Avg Wind Speed: 12.4 Mph (Max Wind Speed: 54 Mph)[13]
Boston’s location near the North Atlantic gives it a Continental climate*, also known as the Nor’easter weather system, which is responsible for much of the city’s heavy precipitation and extreme weather; very hot/ humid summers and very cold/windy winters. [12] The city’s snowiest months are January and February, but the coldest month is January with its overnight temperature average of 22 degrees Fahrenheit. [10] On rare occasions, snowfalls may occur in Boston as late as May and as early as October. [12]
In relation, the city’s warmest month tends to be July, which has an average day temperature of 82 degrees Fahrenheit, while the wettest is usually November with an average precipitation of 3.98 inches, although rain is most frequent during the spring and summer months. [10] [16] Also, due to Boston’s close position to several bodies of water (Atlantic ocean, Charles and Mystic rivers), fog and high humidity are common during the summer months. [16] [12] For these reasons, Boston is considered to be one of the wettest city in the nation with its total annual precipitation of 41.5 inches. [16] With that said, the driest month for the city is July with an average precipitation
of 3.06 inches. [10]
Sunshine hours are the amount of sunlight available during the day. A high percentage means there is a lot of sunshine available and the sky condition is clear. In contrast, a low percentage means there is less light available and the sky condition is cloudy. Annual Avg % of possible sunshine: 58.0% [11] [10]
Degree Days:
Annual heating degree days:5641
Annual cooling degree days:678
How Boston’s Growing Degree Days were obtained:
Boston’s Growing Degree Days(GDDs) were unavailable, despite numerous attempts to find credible sources. This is most likely due to Boston being an urban area where GDDs, which usually pertain to states with a significant amount of crops/agriculture, really does not apply. However, since the web did provide a formula for figuring out GDDs, a ballpark estimate was calculated using the maximum and minimum temperature averages of each month; normally the GDDs would be calculated using the daily highs and lows, but due to time constraints and workload the monthly averages were used instead. Also, for obvious reasons, every month does not have a GDDs. For example, the months of January, February, March, April, November and December, at least when it comes to Boston, are simply too cold for there to be any crop growth/successful agricultural activities.(common crop growth Base temp. 50 degrees Fahrenheit) [32]
Formula: GDD = (T High plus T Low) divided by 2, minus 50) [32]
(T High plus T Low) divided by 2, minus 50)x(30= 365 days/12 months estimated average number of days in a month)
Max and Min averages source [13]
Multiply the result of each month with 30, then add up all of the products.
May 8.2 + June 17.7 + July 23.45 + August 21.9 + September 14.8 + October 4.8 = 90.85x30 = 2725.5 = Annual Growing Degree Days
Continental Climate*- a continental climate is a prevailing meteorological condition that is often associated with the Northeastern United States. It is virtually immune to the ocean’s effects(keeps temperatures mild in the winter and cool in the summer) due to winds that blow out towards the sea(off shore wind patterns). As a result of this, a continental climate is characterized by relatively extreme temperatures and high annual temperature ranges when compared to other climates, such as the Marine climate. [30] [31]
Population
According to the 2000 US census, the population of Boston was 589,141 people, with 239,528 households, and 115,212 families residing in the city. However, during the day, commuters and suburban residents doing business in the city can cause the population to grow to 1.2 million people.
People of Irish descent are the largest single ethnic group in Boston, making up 15.8% of the population, followed by Italians, who are 8.3% of the population. Overall, whites make up 49% of the population, 25% are African-American, 8% are Asian-American, 1% are Native American, 4% are from other races, and 3% are from two or more races.
19.8% of Boston residents are under the age of 18, 16.2% are 18 to 24 years old, 35.8% are from 25 to 44, 17.8 are from 45 to 64, and 10.4% are over the age of 65. The median age for Boston residents is 31 years.
The median income for a household is $39,629, and the per capita income is $23,353. 19.5% of the population and 15.3% of families in Boston are below the poverty line. [17]
Significant Industries
Numerous industries contribute to Boston’s economy. The city first got a history of being a center for wool, textiles, clothing, and leather goods, and these industries are still significant sectors of Boston’s economy. Medicine and education are also large sectors. The Massachusetts General Hospital, which is used as the major teaching facility for both the Tufts University and Harvard University med schools, is located in Boston. There are also 10 colleges and universities, 6 technical schools, 4 art and music schools, and 6 junior colleges in Boston. With so many schools, as well as thriving sports teams and other attractions, it is no surprise that tourism also plays a large role in Boston’s economy. With 62 historic sites and over 2,000 restaurants, Boston is one of the country’s top ten tourist attractions. Other significant industries are fishing, food processing, finance, and high technology research. In recent years, employment has shifted from high labor jobs to service industries. The following charts gives employement by the numbers:
Largest private employers | Number of employees |
Massachusetts General Hospital Corporation | 14,907 |
Fidelity Investments | 11,250 |
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center | 8,568 |
Brigham & Women's Hospital, Inc. | 8,421 |
Boston University | 8,297 |
Children's Hospital | 5,116 |
New England Medical Center | 5,077 |
John Hancock Life Insurance Co. | 4,793 |
Boston Medical Center | 4,650 |
Harvard (business and medical schools) | 4,557 |
It is clear that the largest number of employees stems from medical and educational centers, reiterating their importance to the success of Boston's economy. In fact, Educational and Health Services account for 18% of all employment, which is tied for highest percentage with the Trade, Transporation and Utilities category. Other employment leaders are Professional and Business Services (15%), Government (12%), and Manufacturing (10%). [23]
Massachusetts General Hospital [39] Harvard Medical School [40] Boston University [41]
Industry and Economy
Located on the east coast of the United States is the proud capital city Boston, Massachusetts. Chalk full of United States history, Boston is a very sough after tourist destination. According to Fodor’s, Boston is on the top ten tourist destinations in the United States, with a yearly intake of around 16.3 million visitors almost 7.9 billion dollars in the city [33] Museum of Fine Arts, Isabella Steward Gardener Museum, the Boston Public Gardens, New England Aquarium, and even the Children Museum were rated as the top attractions in the spectacular city [34]. Fodors.com notes one of the most historically rich activities includes the Freedom Trail, which is a 2 ½ mile walk around the city stopping at 16 sites that pay homage to the United State’s past; some include Faneuil Hall, Paul Revere House, Old Corner Bookstore, and Bunker Hill Monument. However, Boston also has other key industry features, which leads to its success as a city.
Being located on the waterfront allows Boston to thrive in the fishing industry. Each year, around 2 million pounds of fish are caught in Atlantic waters surrounding Boston [33]. In turn, this generates employment opportunity in food processing, packaging, and shipping. Moreover, the fresh caught seafood leads to some of the best restaurants in Boston, which also attract tourists. Places like Great Bay in Kenmore Square, Radius in the downtown area, and B & G Oysters, Ltd. at the south end of the city are all exceptional dining recommendations for delicious seafood [34].
Another benefit of Boston’s location is that it makes for a great port, which is why it possesses such a large commercial shipping industry. In fact, it happens to be the oldest and most constantly used ports in the US exporting grain and metals, while bringing in petroleum, automobiles, and container freight [33]. In fact, according to the Massachusetts Port Authority,
“The Port of Boston is alive and thriving. Boston is one of the most modern and efficient container ports in the U.S. Conley Terminal for containerized cargo shipments and Moran Terminal, currently leased to Boston Autoport for the import and distribution of automobiles handle more than 1.3 million tons of general cargo, 1.5 million tons of non-fuels bulk cargo and 12.8 million tons of bulk fuel cargos yearly" [35].
It is clear that location plays an enormous role for Boston, which is why is thrives in this particular industry.
Finally, the official website of Boston, CityofBoston.gov, describes in detail the major economic development plans, which are in effect. Seven different services are provided, and they are: Boston’s Back Streets, Create Boston, Life Tech, Boston’s Retail Market, Emerging Enterprises Program, ReStore Boston, and Boston’s Main Streets [36]. As indicated by their different names, each project focuses its efforts, catering to specific needs or important aspects of Boston’s economy. For instance, Boston’s Back Streets was designed to aid small and medium-sized business financially, with land usage, and helping create diverse workforce, while ReStore Boston is more focused on revitalizing the city with new signs, interior/exterior finishes, alarm systems, new storefront doors and windows, lighting, and new awnings [36]. These plans to improve Boston will further enhance the many spectacular aspects this capital city has to offer.
Bunker Hill Monument [37] Paul Revere House [38]
Resources
[2] http://www.massport.com/default.aspx
[3] http://www.cityofboston.gov/transportation/accessboston/pdfs/bicycle_plan.pdf
[7]http://www.nps.gov/boha/naturescience/animals.htm
[8]http://www.robjagnow.com/travel/monterey05/images/CA0149.jpg
[9]http://students.umf.maine.edu/~malmstad/chikadee.png
[10]http://www.rssweather.com/climate/Massachusetts/Boston/
[11]http://www.climate-zone.com/climate/united-states/massachusetts/boston/
[12]http://www.mapsofworld.com/cities/usa/boston/boston-weather.html
[13]http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/ccd.html
[14]http://web.mit.edu/jonmosk/www/research/BOSclimate/BOSclimate.html
[15]http://www.erh.noaa.gov/box/climate/bosfeb.shtml
[16]http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Northeast/Boston-Geography-and-Climate.html
[17]http://factfinder.census.gov/home/saff/main.html?_lang=en
[18]http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557136/Boston.html
[19]http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search.aspx?q=boston+bodies+of+water
[20]http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search.aspx?q=boston+elevation
[21]http://www.city-data.com/city/Boston-Massachusetts.html
[22]http://www.universalhub.com/node/4302
[23]http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Northeast/Boston-Economy.html
[24]http://massachusetts.hometownlocator.com/MA/Suffolk/Boston.cfm
[25]http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557136/Boston.html
[26]http://bluechiprealtygroup.com/images/aerial3.jpg
[27]http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/DowntownBoston.jpg/791px-DowntownBoston.jpg
[28]http://landcover.usgs.gov/states_regions_2.php?rec=18
[29]http://www.cityofboston.gov/parks/
[30]http://www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/glossary.html
[31]http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate/Older/Continental_Climate.html
[32]http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0101.html
[33]http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Northeast/Boston-Economy.html
[34]http://www.fodors.com/world/north%20america/usa/index.html
[35]http://www.massport.com/ports/about.html
[36]http://www.cityofboston.gov/business/Eco_Dev.asp
[37]http://www.charlestownonline.net/bunkerhillmonument.htm
[38]http://www.paulreverehouse.org/
[39]http://www.fitz.cam.ac.uk/alumni/giving/useoffunds/images/us_hospital.jpg
[40]http://www.skypic.com/colleges/2-4532.jpg
[41]http://www.stateuniversity.com/assets/logo/image/302/large/boston-u.jpg
El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Josh Kwon: jkkwon2
El Nino is a term that refers to a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. The name El Niño, is spanish for "The Christ Child" because it is a condition that is usually noticed around Christmas time in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of South America. El Niño occurs approximately every 2-3 years, usually followed by an episode of La Niño.
The mechanisms which might cause an El Niño event are still being investigated. It is difficult to find patterns which may show causes or allow forecasts. As the phenomenon is located near the equator, events in both hemispheres may have an effect. As the weather events are somewhat chaotic, the onsets of El Niño-events may also be.
ENSO is a set of specific interacting parts of a single global system of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations that come about as a consequence of oceanic and atmospheric circulations. ENSO is demonstrably connected to seasonal, even yearly, regional climatic effects on large areas. It is the most prominent known source of inter-annual variability in weather and climate around the world, though not all areas are affected. ENSO has signatures in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. El Niño changes the distribution of rainfall, causing floods in some areas and drought in others. [1]
The Southern Oscillation is a fluctuation in air pressure between the tropical eastern and western Pacific Ocean waters and in the intensity of the Walker Cell, which is a gigantic circulation cell that is created by the vertical motions of the from the major pressure centers in the tropical Pacific mixing with the westward surface winds creating return flow of air aloft from west to east. When this system weakens or breaks down El Niño occurs. El Niño episodes are usually accompanied by sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, a decrease in the strength of the Pacific Trade Winds, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. It is measured through the SOI, or the Southern Oscillation Index. This is determined through pressure at Tahiti subtracted by the level of pressure at Darwin. Each amount of pressure is measured as a surface pressure expressed as a departure from its monthly normal value. When the index is negative, the high- and low- pressure centers are weaker than normal, indicative of the El Nino phase (weak trade winds). When the index is positive, the high- and low-pressure centers are stronger than normal, indicative of the La Nina phase (strong trade winds). [2]
The ENSO has no direct effect on Boston, Massachusetts. El Nino is just a condition that tends to remain and have consequences on the Pacific Ocean area for the most part. The conditions required for El Nino are not for certain, so it is difficult to deternine why El Nino has no direct effect and why the conditions are not right. It could be pressure systems, humidity, temperature, but El Nino just is not apparent in Boston unless it is through a slight increase or decrease in temperature during certain times of the year.
Lake-Effect Snow
Kyle McDonald-kmcdona2
Lake-effect snow occurs in the winter season. These snowstorms produce heavy amounts of snow and can continue for several days. They produce hazardous driving conditions and treacherous snow removal. These events occur in the United States around the Great Lakes region
(Picture from link 15)
These snowstorms develop in the winter season. First, air moves over the lake surface. The cold air moves over the warm lake faster than it does over land. This creates divergence. Second, the cold air moving across the warm lake, allows heat to be transferred from the lake surface to the air above. This therefore provides energy and the air begins to pick up water vapor. Third, the air near the lake surface heats up and becomes unstable. Then the clouds form while passing over the lake. Lastly, convergence occurs near the shoreline. With the air now unstable, the upward motion triggers additional convection and strengthens the upward air motion. This is when the snow falls from the clouds after moving off the lake with the heaviest snow occurring right below the convergence zone. The longer the air is over the warm lake the heavier the snow.
(Severe & Hazardous Weather, 209-210).
Lake-effect snow doesnt have many intriguing instances, in relation to
The lasting impact of Lake-effect snow is tremendous. This is really what this severe weather phenomenon is known for. These snowstorms can dump 1 to 5 feet at any given time in the winter. These storms can last for several days. This can make cleaning the massive amounts of snow throughout the surrounding towns very hard. Lake-effect snow storms have also make it hard to clean up all the debris that the storm scatters throughout the towns. For example, in Buffalo, New York there was an estimated 6-8.3 million cubic yards of debris. This cost the city 130 million dollars to clean up the debris left by this Lake-effect storm.[22] Obviously, Boston is quite lucky that they are not located closer to Lake Ontario or Lake-effect snowstorms would produce more than just ocassional light snow for several days.
[3] |
The most frequently occurring source of floods in Boston is the flooding that results after landfall of tropical cyclones. The tropical cyclones affect the entire east coast of the United States all the way down to the Gulf Coast. The Atlantic tropical cyclone is responsible for the rainfall on the east coast and produces an exorbitant amount of rainfall in a very minute amount of time. The abundance in rain causes rivers and streams to overflow, which can create severe flooding.
Although unrelated to weather, there was an enormous flood of molasses in Boston on January 15, 1919 due to a faulty design in structure. A 50 foot tall and 240 foot around tank erupted, spewing 2.3 million gallons of molasses. The explosion created a thirty-foot waves that swept anything and everything in its path. The Great Molasses Flood, as it is known to be called, killed 21 people, injured 150, and destroyed freight cars, automobiles, buildings, and wagons. It is said that, even today, on a hot day, the scent of molasses fills the air.[4]
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The average temperatures in Boston are mild with July being the warmest month with the average of high 82 degrees Fahrenheit [2]. Unlike the Central Plains of the US, the temperatures in Boston are rarely high enough for severe thunderstorm formation.
Days with Thunderstorms
Meteorological Development
Blizzards
Being in the New England region, Boston, Massachusetts is no stranger to its fair share of snowfall. With an average annual snowfall of approximately 40 inches per year, has a moderate precipitation of snow per year. Being on the Eastern coast, the city is not subject to much lake-effect snow, so the majority of snowfall is the result of extratropical cyclones that mixes with rapidly cooled air from arctic fronts in Canada. This air, known as an Alberta clipper, can be as cold as –40 ºC, but will generally only bring 2-5 inches of snow with it. [9]
According to the National Weather Service, a blizzard is only considered a blizzard once winds exceed 35 mph, visibility is reduced to less than ¼ mile and snowfall lasts for 3 hours. Considering this, much snow precipitation is not considered a blizzard at all. In fact, the continental United States only experiences an average of 11 blizzards per year, many of which occur on the Great Plains. [41] Consequently, Boston is not subject to a prevalent number of blizzards, having only experienced about 10 blizzards in the past 50 years. Even so, it is still at risk for them when the conditions are right. Never had Boston seen a more destructive, severe blizzard than it did during the winter of 1978.
Case Study: The Boston Blizzard of 1978
On the days of February 6th and 7th, 1978, the largest blizzard in Boston’s history wreaked havoc on the city and the surrounding area. Approximately 27 inches of snow fell to the ground, but this was only part of the reason for all the destruction that was responsible for paralyzing the city for a week. On top of the precipitation, the seas also swelled to over 20 feet from their normal levels and snow drifts piled to 15 feet, which were both caused by winds that blew at 86 miles per hour and even gusted up to 111 miles per hour! (The same speeds as a category 1 hurricane) All of these components, along with scattered hailstorms resulted in $202 million worth of damage and was responsible for the deaths of 29 people. 9,000 homes were damaged and over 2,000 were completely destroyed from a combination of all of the blizzard components. [39]
[42] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRvvnDy2GFo&feature=related
The reason for such unusual weather was due to a Canadian high and a low-pressure zone in North Carolina that was moving northward. This caused the storm to move back north and east over the greater Boston area. While a snow watch had been issued for the area, not many people expected record-breaking snowfall many were only notified to expect 6 inches of snow. For help and support, nearly 5,000 National Guardsmen were dispatched to the area in order to help people that had been stranded. Nearly 100,000 calls for assistance were made during the 33-hour storm, and 17,000 people were reported to be fleeing to established shelters. [41]
On top of that, the State Police, Department of Public Works, American Red Cross, the Metropolitan Distric Commission, the Department of Public Welfare and the Department of Environmental Quality Engineering. While this help was available, the mounting snow in the city made many roads impassible to those that were trying to send relief to those still trapped in the storm. To make problems even worse, in the middle of the storm, it was discovered that a 2-million gallon gasoline tank was leaking in the city and the entire area had to be evacuated. In order to keep the gas from draining into the nearby sewer system, an enormous trench had to be dug up in the middle of the city to contain the leak. Not only did this pose an increased threat for people in the city, but it took away from relief efforts for other parts of the city. In total 27 pieces of army equipment were used to clear the streets, and a lot of these were taken away in order to fix the gasoline problem.[40]
Drought
By: Neena Vasavan, vasavan2
How drought develops: Droughts are a fascinating weather phenomenon because they are so mysterious. Though the idea of drought brings to mind a water shortage or minimal to no precipitation in a given area, there is no true definition of the term. This is because everything is relative when it comes to drought. What may be considered normal amounts of rainfall in sandy, desert areas would be the called extreme drought in the Northeastern U.S., particularly in the Boston area. Also, droughts are enigmatic because meteorologists are still unsure what exactly triggers a drought, as well as what can cause one to come to an end. Typical weather forecasts are often proven false when a drought is occurring. [9] However, certain atmospheric conditions do help cause and maintain droughts. Because water vapor condenses when air rises, high pressure conditions are one factor that causes no rain to occur. High air pressure causes air to sink as opposed to rise, and also creates clear, cloudless skies. Mountains can also be a factor in preventing an area from receiving rain, because they force the air to climb over and therefore lose a significant amount of its moisture. The Appalachians could have this effect on parts of the Northeast; however, it is unlikely Boston will experience drought due to this because the city is located to the east of the mountains, which is closer to the ocean.[32]
Frequency of these types of events/time of year: In the central and eastern part of the country, drought occurs in the spring and summer. [9] Drought is rare in the Boston area. The following graph shows the drought percentages from April 15, 2008 all the way to April 17, 2007.
As you can see, the percentages for “no drought” are generally in the mid to upper 90s, showing that moisture has been the norm for the past year. [33] General climate trends show that “precipitation has generally increased, with trends greater than 20% over the last 100 years occurring in much of the region. Precipitation extremes appear to be increasing while the amount of land area experiencing drought appears to be decreasing.” [34] However, mild drought in the Northeast area is not unheard of. The following graph shows a map of the Massachusetts area in 2007 [35].
Most of the area is shaded in the “advisory” category, which would be considered mild drought. Also, as previously mentioned, drought is always relative. Recent droughts in the Northeast area are outlined in the next section.
Unique aspects of the event to city/area and lasting impacts: Droughts in the Northeast area are unique because they are not what a typical person would consider a “drought” because they are fairly mild strings of little to no precipitation, but drought in the Northeast does not have any extraordinarily different characteristics from drought in other areas. A recent drought occurred in the summer of 2002 in the area. “September 2001-February 2002 ranked as the second driest such six-month period for the Northeast.” This can be seen by the following graph [36]:
In an August 17, 2007 article, USAToday wrote “The drought parching the Northeast, already one of the worst in decades, continues to lower groundwater levels, damage crops and force states to increase water restrictions. And experts say the end is nowhere in sight.” As stated, the drought was the nearly record setting and had negative effects on the crops of the areas. [37]